What Landscape Problems Does Animal Urine Cause
Introduction
As cities grow (Ritchie and Roser, 2019), so do their impacts on and interactions with urban greenspaces. Urbanization has widely recognized impacts on establish, animal, and microbial communities likewise as on local and regional nutrient cycles (McKinney, 2008; Churkina, 2016; Decina et al., 2019). Forth with increasing urbanization, dog (Canis familiaris) ownership is as well on the rising. While common in western countries such as the United states – where as many as 49% of households own at least 1 dog (The Insurance Information Institute, 2019) – dog ownership is chop-chop becoming more common globally (GfK, 2016).
Many urban residents visit greenspaces daily, and these areas provide residents with many valuable ecosystem services such as stormwater retention and handling, the sequestration of excess nutrients and metals, and opportunities for recreation and nature-connections for metropolis residents (Bolund and Hunhammar, 1999; McCormack et al., 2010; Irvine et al., 2013; Bertram and Rehdanz, 2015; Setälä et al., 2017). As canis familiaris-walking is a common activeness in urban greenspaces (Brownish and Rhodes, 2006; Goliènik and Ward Thompson, 2010; Iojă et al., 2011), dog feces are a recognized trouble in these areas (Mallin et al., 2000; Whitlock et al., 2002; McCormack et al., 2010; Cinquepalmi et al., 2013; Stone et al., 2016). Still, the impact of dog urine has received trivial attention. Recent work by Hobbie et al. (2017) showed that nutrient inputs from pet waste matter (both feces and urine) contributed upwards to 28% of total N to urban watersheds, second merely to residential lawn fertilizer. Paradeis et al. (2013) examined the distribution and concentrations of soil nutrients and salts within enclosed, off-ternion dog parks and found that these variables were distributed forth gradients and at hotspots within those parks. While N is a vital food for plant growth, its excess application has negative effects on soil functions and the quality of both ground and surface waters. The urine of dogs is rich in urea, which breaks down to bachelor N in the class of ammonium in the soil through the procedure of hydrolysis. A recent laboratory study by Lee et al. (2019) showed that even short-term applications of dog urine has significant effects on soil biogeochemistry in urban light-green infrastructures and negatively impacted the ability of these structures to retain and treat stormwater.
Cities are both sources and sinks for Due north and other nutrients (Lorenz and Kandeler, 2005; Lorenz and Lal, 2009). The need to better understand the Northward contribution of dogs (future referred to as domestic dog-deposition N) is becoming more pressing every bit cities and dog ownership rates grow globally. Based on the average domestic dog-ownership rate for Finland (∼22%), we approximate that dogs living in Helsinki, the capital letter of Republic of finland, may produce as much as xv kg Northward ha–1 annually. This is comparable to atmospheric deposition, which is estimated to be 2.ane–25 kg total dissolved inorganic nitrogen ha–i twelvemonth–one (Manninen, 2018). Yet, dog-deposition N is unlikely to be homogeneous across the urban surface area, and likely represents an even more significant touch within a item area of greenspace (see Paradeis et al., 2013).
In this written report, we examined soils from unlike types of urban greenspace, and from unlike areas within them to better sympathize the spatial distribution of dog-deposition North. Due to leash requirements in Finland (Järjestyslaki, 2003), we hypothesized that:
(one) Dog-deposition is not evenly distributed, but objects located near pathways, e.1000., trees and utility poles, receive college inputs than lawn areas adjacent to the same path. Furthermore, dog-deposition effects will exist higher close to these objects than further away, due to the preference of dogs to countermark the urine of other dogs (Lisberg and Snowdon, 2011).
(2) The magnitude of dog-deposition along pathways will vary by greenspace type, with Remnant Forests being more than heavily impacted than Tree Alleys and Parks the least. We hypothesize that Remnant Forests will show the highest impact due to ternion requirements and the presence of understory vegetation and closely spaced trees bounding the paths. This would brand excursions away from the pathway more than hard, and so dogs are leap to spend more than fourth dimension on the paths relative to the Tree Alleys and Parks. Nosotros await Tree Aisle paths to exist more than impacted than Park paths due to their linear nature, while the open lawns and widely spaced trees of Parks offering dogs and their owners ample opportunities to deviate from the pathways.
Materials and Methods
Study Area
Ii cities in Finland were included in this study: (1) Helsinki (lx°ten′15″N 24°56′15″E), population ca. 650 000; and (2) Lahti (60°59′N 025°39′East), population 120 000 (see Setälä et al., 2016 for additional details regarding these localities). Thirty-four sites were selected (Helsinki due north = 18, Lahti due north = 16), grouped into three typologies: Parks (n = 11): public spaces with maintained pathways, lawns, trees, etc.; Tree alleys (n = eleven): linear features consisting of a tree lined path divisional by, e.g., buildings, roads or fencing; and Remnant forests (northward = 12): relatively unmanaged areas with a dense tree canopy and networks of maintained and breezy pathways. A site location map tin can be found in the Supplementary Material (Figure S1), and an interactive version of the field site map can exist found at https://bit.ly/3lQcrNq.
Sample Collection
We collected soil samples from 22 Baronial to 13 September 2018. Adjacent to a main pathway at each site, we collected composite samples of eight sub-samples from the elevation 10 cm of soil using a stainless steel push corer (iii cm ø) at: (i) a deciduous tree (Acer, Tilia, Ulmus, Betula or Quercus sp.), (two) a utility or lamppost, and (3) a backyard expanse. Lawn areas were selected to exist >5 1000 abroad from any objects (e.g., benches, trash bins, lampposts), and outside of the tree awning where possible. At trees and poles, one blended sample was taken from inside 30 cm around the item and a second 1 from within an expanse of i grand2 centered at 1 m from the edge of the item opposite the pathway. From the backyard, one composite sample was taken from within a 0.v 10002 area immediately adjacent to the path, and the 2d from within 1 chiliadtwo centered at one g from the path edge. In Parks we likewise nerveless soil samples from lawn areas >8 g away from pathways (north = thirty), and from around trees inaccessible to dogs or >viii grand from a main pathway (northward = vi). Schematics for the typical layout of each typology are given in the Supplementary Material (Figure S2).
Sample Handling, Processing and Analyses
Samples were stored in a freezer at −twenty°C at the end of each field day to limit the loss of N due to the continued metabolic action of soil bacteria. Prior to analysis, batches of ∼25 samples were removed from the freezer and thawed overnight at +four°C, sieved (ii mm mesh) and homogenized by manus in a x 50 plastic bucket. The sieve and bucket where thoroughly cleaned betwixt each sample using a castor and warm tap h2o, so dried using newspaper towels. Dispensable nitrile gloves were worn while sieving and homogenizing the soil and were changed between samples. Approximately 0.5 dL of the sieved samples were ready aside for soil dry mass conclusion later drying overnight at 110°C, and organic matter content (%OM) by the standard loss-on-ignition method (Finnish Standard Association, 1990). Soil electric electrical conductivity (EC) and pH were measured from a 1:2 volume mix of air-dried soil and ultra-pure water, 4 h after mixing.
For the nitrogen analyses, soil samples were extracted post-obit Decina et al. (2018), using a 2M solution of KCl. Laboratory blank samples of filtered 2M KCl were created at least once per day and for each batch of 2M KCl solution. The filtered sample extracts and blanks were stored in 100 mL plastic bottles and frozen at −xx°C to await assay.
Soil extracts were analyzed colometrically for nitrate (NOiii –), ammonium (NH4 +), and total nitrogen (TN) at the University of Helsinki'south Ecology Laboratory at the Lahti Campus. Briefly, samples were pipetted into 96-well microplates with i standard bend per plate at the commencement with a serial of external quality command solutions. Procedures for making and adding reagents to the microplates, as well as their analysis followed Sims et al. (1995) and Doane and Horwáth (2003) for NH4 + and NO3 –, and Miranda et al. (2001) for TN. Limit of quantification (LoQ) values for each analysis were established by analyzing multiple blank samples with added reagents. Manufacturer and batch information for the materials, reagents, standards, and equipment used are given in the Supplementary Cloth.
Soil freezing has been shown to affect the amount of extractable N measured from soils, which may show a marked increase after thawing (run across Edwards and Cresser, 1992). While this is a concern, the soils from our study are typically frozen for several months during winter, thus freezing of the soils prior to analyses is unlikely to innovate a bias to our results.
Stable Isotope Analysis
To determine if nitrogen deposited within urban greenspaces originate from like sources, soil samples from path-side Poles and Trees (0 one thousand) (n = vi) and backyard areas 8 1000 from the path (due north = iv) were analyzed at the Finnish Museum of Natural History's Laboratory of Chronology in Helsinki to determine their δ15N values. The raw isotope data were normalized with a multi-point calibration using certified isotopic reference materials (USGS-40, USGS-41, IAEA-N1, and IAEA-N2). The mean measured δ15N values for scale references were −four.32‰ for USGS-40, +46.66‰ for USGS-41, +0.62‰ for IAEA-N1, and +20.xiii‰ for IAEA-N2. Replicate analyses of quality command reference materials (soil, corn leaf) analyzed alongside the unknowns indicate a 1(σ internal precision of ≤0.10.
Statistical Analyses
All statistical analyses were performed in R (five iii.half dozen.three) (R Core Team, 2020) for each of the response variables: EC, pH, NO3 –, NH4 +, and TN. Normality of these variables was determined by inspecting histograms and performing Shapiro–Wilks Normality tests. Appropriate ability transformations for non-normal variables were adamant using the transformTukey function from the rcompanion package (Mangiafico, 2020).
Generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) (Bates et al., 2015) were used to test the effects of domestic dog urine on the soil parameters listed higher up. Commencement, we examined the spatial extent of dog-deposition at 0, i, and viii m from the path-side treatments using information from the Park typology only. These models include (i) treatment (a factor with three levels; Lawn, Tree, Pole), (ii) distance (a gene with iii levels; 0, 1, and 8 k), their two-way interaction, and percentage organic thing (OM) and soil moisture. We included site, nested within metropolis as a random term in the models. Model choice was performed by removing OM and/or soil moisture when these variables were not statistically pregnant (p-values > 0.1).
2nd, to test if dog-deposition magnitude varies by type of greenspace nosotros again used GLMMs and tested the response variables against (i) typology (a factor with three levels; Tree Alley, Remnant Forests, and Parks, (ii) treatment (a factor with three levels; Lawn, Tree, Pole), (iii) distance (a factor with two levels; 0 and i m), the treatment × distance interaction, and percentage OM and soil moisture. The random term was structured as above, and model pick was performed in the same manner.
Results
Soil chemical science varied profoundly depending on proximity to path-side trees and poles (Figures ane, ii and Tables ane, two). Soil EC, NOthree –, NHiv +, and TN levels were several times higher, and pH considerably lower within the 30 cm area effectually path-side trees and poles compared to soils 1 m abroad (in all 3 typologies) and 8 yard away (in Parks). Notwithstanding, path-side backyard areas were largely duplicate from the lawn areas 1 and viii m abroad from the path. We also found slight differences between greenspace typologies (Figure 2 and Table two).
Effigy 1. Back-transformed model predicted mean ± SE values for Electrical Conductivity (EC), pH, nitrate, ammonium, and total nitrogen at 0, 1, and eight m abroad from path-side grass plots, trees, and poles in Parks only.
Effigy two. Comparison of back-transformed model predicted mean ± SE values for Electrical Electrical conductivity (EC), pH, nitrate, ammonium, and total nitrogen at 0 and ane m away from path-side grass plots, trees, and poles in three greenspace typologies: Parks, Tree Alleys and Remnant Forests.
Tabular array ane. GLMM results, testing the effects of treatment (a factor with three levels; grass, pole, tree), distance (a factor with three levels; 0, 1, and 8 k), and their two-way interaction on five variables (pH, EC, nitrate, ammonium, and tot. nitrogen).
Table 2. GLMM results, testing the effects of typology (a factor with iii levels: Parks, Tree Alleys, and Remnant Forests), treatment (a gene with three levels: grass, pole, tree), distance (a factor with two levels: 0 and 1 m), and their two-way interaction on 5 variables (pH, EC, nitrate, ammonium, and tot. nitrogen).
Stable isotope analysis of a subset of samples showed the soils effectually path-side copse and poles (northward = 6) to have a mean (δ15N value of 8.3, while samples taken from 8 m away (n = 4) had a hateful [δ15N value of 3.5 (Welch two sample t test, t = 3.556, p = 0.008) (Supplementary Figure S3)].
Discussion
We have shown that dog-degradation is localized and impacts soil chemistry in urban greenspaces significantly. Supporting the first hypothesis, soil chemic characteristics and δ15N values around path-side copse and poles were significantly different from those located further from the paths and from lawn area soils next to the same pathway. Differences we observed in the δ15N values of soil samples taken from path-side trees and poles at 0 m and viii m away suggest that the main Northward inputs to these areas are derived from dissimilar sources. Even so, contrary to expectations, we institute no difference in the measured variables between the path-side (0 m), i and viii m backyard samples, indicating that path-side trees and poles human activity as focal points for canis familiaris-deposition, while lawn areas do non. This is likely a function of gender-specific differences in dogs' urinating and scent-mark behaviors (countermarking), with male dogs preferring to urinate direct on copse and poles (overmarking) while females generally practise not, instead preferring to urinate nearly, just not at the same locations equally other dogs (adjacent-marker) (Pal, 2003; Lisberg and Snowdon, 2011).
Our data practise suggest that canis familiaris-deposition impacts vary with greenspace typology, but not in the way we expected. Remnant Forests, rather than beingness the nearly impacted, were establish to exist the least affected, while Tree Alleys were found to be the most heavily impacted, followed by Parks. The lower values observed in Remnant Forests could be due to a lower number of domestic dog walkers in these areas, while Tree Alleys may experience higher volumes of traffic and may also be the commencement area of greenspace that a dog encounters when beingness taken for a walk. The open design of Parks may allow dogs and their owners more opportunities to deviate from established pathways, thereby spreading their impacts more widely. Another factor that is likely to affect the magnitude of dog-degradation in these areas is residential population density of the surrounding areas. While we did not directly examine this potential correlation, we did select our written report sites to exist located inside the urban cadre or ≤500 m of multifamily/loftier-density residential areas.
Our research indicates that domestic dog-deposition is strongly associated with objects about pathways in urban greenspaces and that it is localized. Significant rapid and long-lasting impacts on soil biogeochemistry accept been shown to consequence from even a single application of urine (see, e.g., Haynes and Williams, 1992; Orwin et al., 2009; Lee et al., 2019). The effects on soil chemical backdrop observed in our study propose that the touch on of canis familiaris urine in urban greenspaces is even greater than the impacts observed in these studies. Furthermore, in addition to existence highly localized, the input of Due north from dogs to urban greenspaces is chronic, and it is likely that multiple dogs will urinate in the aforementioned location each day. This sustained input of concentrated N in areas frequented by humans for recreation and leisure represents a uniquely urban miracle, ane whose closest analog may be pastureland urine patches or waste product lagoons in the confined animal feeding operations (CAFOs) of industrial agriculture. In fact, the average concentrations of ammonium we measured from soils located around path-side poles in Parks was 103.9 ± xviii.4 mg kg–1 (mean ± SE), which is more than four times the cleanup standard proposed by Volland et al. (2003) for ammonium (25 mg kg–1) in soil underneath CAFOs and is comparable to values found in soils underneath CAFO waste lagoons (DeSutter et al., 2005). By dissimilarity, the ammonium concentrations we measured in Park lawn soils 8 m away from pathways was only vi.7 ± 0.9 mg kg–1 (mean ± SE), which is comparable to the values from urban soils analyzed by Paradeis et al. (2013).
The localized nature of domestic dog-deposition provides urban planners with the opportunity to alleviate this impact past modifying greenspace designs and incorporating structures designed to attract and isolate dog urine from the broader surroundings. Dog owners could be encouraged, through educational outreach and on-site signage, to direct their dogs toward structures or areas where drains tin capture infiltrating urine and stormwater. Such a system would protect ground and surface waters by diverting this nutrient rich flow to sanitary sewers or other treatment systems prior to release. Furthermore, greenspaces can be designed with the probable locations of hotspots already in mind, and and then controls can be included in the site plan, rather than retrofitted.
Compared to natural areas, cities are enriched with N, and while environmental quality regulations have led to a subtract in atmospheric N deposition in recent decades (Eshleman et al., 2013), dog buying rates are increasing. Fifty-fifty now, some countries are seeing a fasten in pet adoptions and fostering in response to the COVID-19 crunch, with many pet shelters in the United States being completely emptied during the summer of 2020 (Oppenheim, 2020; Vincent et al., 2020). This spike even so, if current growth trends in urbanization and dog buying continue, the localized impacts that we accept plant volition probable increase in severity and possibly in spatial extent, and dog-deposition could become the single largest source of N in urban watersheds.
As cities sprawl and/or density, urban greenspaces are coming nether mounting pressure, even while the services they provide are becoming more important to greater numbers of people and their pets (Haaland and van den Bosch, 2015). Dogs take played an important part in homo societies for thousands of years and will undoubtedly go on to be valuable partners. However, as our populations continue to grow, so does the need to better sympathize the office of dogs in urban N deposition and their broader impacts on sustainable urban evolution and the environment.
Data Availability Argument
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material, farther inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Writer Contributions
JA conceived, designed, and wrote the manuscript and was responsible for performing the experiment and data analyses. HS provided guidance and back up in all aspects of the research and participated in the writing process. DK provided guidance and back up in all aspects of the enquiry and writing process, especially regarding experimental design and data analyses. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
Funding
This project was made possible through the back up of the Onni and Hilja Tuovinen Foundation (grant decision v/2018), the City of Helsinki (grant no. HEL 2019-001617), the University of Helsinki Funds (grant nos. 1064091, 1065269, and 1116153), MUTKU ry. (grant decision 14062019), and the Päijät-Häme Regional Fund of the Finnish Cultural Foundation (grant no. 70201490).
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed equally a potential conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
We thank Marianne Lehtonen and Jukka Pellinen of the University of Helsinki's Ecology Laboratory for their fabric support and help in analyzing our samples, and Changyi Lu for his aid in the field. We are likewise grateful to Juha Raisio from the Urban center of Helsinki Environmental Office, and Markku Saari from the Lahti City Parks Department for granting u.s. permission to work in the cities' parks.
Supplementary Material
The Supplementary Material for this article can exist found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2020.615979/full#supplementary-material
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Source: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2020.615979/full
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